下面將這十大論證方法一一講解。
首先,有必要將下面講解所涉及的概念解釋一下。每一個論證方法將按照論點(diǎn)、論據(jù)和推理依據(jù)的順序講解。大家都知道,凡是議論文必然有論點(diǎn)、論據(jù)和論證三要素。論點(diǎn)和論據(jù)好理解,而論證就是用論據(jù)支持論點(diǎn)的過程。但用論據(jù)支持論點(diǎn)是否有效,關(guān)鍵在于由論點(diǎn)到論據(jù)有沒有足夠的推理依據(jù)。推理依據(jù)不成立,論證就是無效論證。
這里順便講一下ARGUMENT的解題思路:每一道ARGUMENT題目本身都是一個從論據(jù)到論點(diǎn)的論證過程:其中有觀點(diǎn),有論據(jù)。這個從論據(jù)到論點(diǎn)的論證過程會出現(xiàn)諸多大大小 小邏輯鏈條。只要我們能證明ARGUMENT題目中的論者在任何一個邏輯鏈條上出了問題,那 么,其推理/論證就不能成立。
所以,對于ARGUMENT,我們的任務(wù)只有一個:從兩到三個方面證明題目在哪些邏輯鏈條上出了問題,以至于其由論據(jù)到論點(diǎn)/結(jié)論的推理依據(jù)不成立。 而ARGUMENT所有的分析切入點(diǎn),就是這里將要談到的十大論證技巧。正是在這十大論證技 巧里面,大家完全可以發(fā)現(xiàn)ISSUE和ARGUMENT兩種不同寫作任務(wù)之間互濟(jì)相通的樂趣。
一、演繹推理論證法
將一個具體的事例運(yùn)用到一個一般性原則從而得出結(jié)論。例如:
論點(diǎn):Demand for this product will go up.
論據(jù):The price of the product is sliding.
推理依據(jù): Whenever prices of a product go down, demand for it rises.
(說明:由論據(jù)“The price of the product is sliding” 推出論點(diǎn) “Demand for this product will go up”,這個過程是否有效取決于推理依據(jù) “Whenever prices of a product go down, demand for it rises"是否成立。下面每一種論證方法都是如此。)
二、定義法
界定一個概念的關(guān)鍵內(nèi)涵;或者認(rèn)定某個亊物符合某個定義,從而得出結(jié)論。例如:
論點(diǎn):Radical feminists are not good citizens.
論據(jù):Radical feminists lack family values.
推理依據(jù):Family values characterize the good citizen.
三、因果關(guān)系論證法
將一個判斷放入一個因果關(guān)系中,指出它或者是原因,或者是結(jié)果。例如:
論點(diǎn):The Internet may be causing depression.
論據(jù):When a group of people increased their use of the Internet, they felt depressed.
推理依據(jù):There are no other reasons for the group’s depression.
四、歸納推理論證法
從若干個具體亊例中推出共性的一般結(jié)論。例如:
論點(diǎn):Everyone likes the movie.
論據(jù):I know three people who like the movie.
推理依據(jù):Three examples are enough.
五、列舉特征式論證法
指出某事物發(fā)生或者存在的征候或跡象。例如:
論點(diǎn):The child has chickenpox.
論據(jù):The child has red spots.
推理依據(jù):These spots are signs of chickenpox
六、類比論證法
用我們已知的、熟悉的事物同未知的、不熟悉的事物加以比較,并用前者的情況解釋后者 的情況。分為三種:縱向類比(過去的事物同現(xiàn)在的、同一類事物的類比)、橫向類比(同一 時期、同一類事物之間的類比)、比喻式類比(不同類別亊物之間的類比)。例如:
1.縱向類比(Historical Analogy)
論點(diǎn):Many people will die of SARS.
論據(jù):Many people died of the Black Death.
推理依據(jù):SARS and Black Death are similar.
2.橫向類比(Literal Analogy)
論點(diǎn):China should have its fighter carriers.
論據(jù):A neighboring country has a powerful carrier fleet.
推理依據(jù):The two countries are similar enough to draw such a comparison.
3.比喻式類比(Metaphorical Analogy)
論點(diǎn):Reading a difficult book should take time.
論據(jù): Digesting a large meal takes time.
推理依據(jù):Reading and eating are sufficiently alike to be compared.
七、引用權(quán)威論證法
引用公認(rèn)的權(quán)威,或者論證自己就是權(quán)威從而對自己的觀點(diǎn)加以論證。例如:
論點(diǎn):China’s economy will grow 8 percent this year.
論據(jù):Professors and scientists say so.
推理依據(jù):These experts are reliable.
八、訴諸常識法
利用人們的常識[包括:普遍性的價值觀念(universal values such as freedom, equality, supremacy of life, dignity and pursuit of happiness )、人們的普遍動機(jī)(public motives: desire for love, shelter, food, security, wealth, knowledge, etc. )、生活常識(widely-accepted ideas and practices in life)進(jìn)行論證。例如:
1、訴諸普遍性的價值觀念(Universal Values)
論點(diǎn):The university curriculum should be multicultural.
論據(jù):A multicultural curriculum will contribute to equality and acceptance.
推理依據(jù): You value equality and acceptance.
2、訴諸普通動機(jī)(Public Motives)
論點(diǎn):You should support this candidate premier.
論據(jù):The candidate can help you get job security and safe neighborhoods.
推理依據(jù):You want job security and safe neighborhoods.
3、訴諸生活常識(Widely-accepted Ideas and Practices in Life)
論點(diǎn):She was very kind to me.
論據(jù):She treated me with the best tea she had.
推理依據(jù): A treatment with the best tea is an expression of kindness.
九、反證法
假設(shè)一個觀點(diǎn)是正確的,然而卻推導(dǎo)出荒謬的結(jié)論。例如:
論點(diǎn):An industrious man must also be thrifty.
論據(jù):With only industry but without thrift, the person will end up bankrupt.
推理依據(jù):An industrious person ending up bankrupt sounds absurd.
十、統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù)論證法
提供數(shù)據(jù),以資論證。例如:
論點(diǎn):We should end the current poverty-relief program.
論據(jù):It costs $45 million per year.
推理依據(jù):This is too much; it proves we should end it.
在實際的論證過程中,我們可能并不需要給出推理依據(jù),而只是直接拿論據(jù)去證明論點(diǎn)。 比如,在演繹推理法的例子中,如果我們想證明論點(diǎn)“Demand for this product will go up”的正 確性,我們通常只需給出論據(jù)“The price of the product is sliding”就行了。這是因為讀者的思想意識一般都已經(jīng)有了,或者都已經(jīng)認(rèn)可了 “Whenever prices of a product go down, demand for it rises”這個邏輯前提。但有時為了充分說明問題,作者也需要將推理依據(jù)及其合理性加以說 明,并給出證明。比如,在引用權(quán)威法的例子中,為了證明論點(diǎn)“China’s economy will grow 8 percent this year”,我們會首先給出論據(jù)“Professors and scientists say so”。但為了使我們的論證更為可信,我們會進(jìn)一步說明并證明推理依據(jù)“These expem are reliable”。