大學(xué)英語精讀第五冊UNIT 5. Science and the Scientific Attitude

As the author points out below, the success of science has less to do with a particular method than with an essential attitude of the scientist. This attitude is essentially one of inquiry, experimentation and humility before the facts. Therefore, a good scientist is an honest one. True scientists do not bow to any authority but they are ever ready to modify or even abandon their ideas if adequate evidence is found contradicting them. Scientists, they do place a high value on honesty.

Science and the Scientific Attitude
by Paul G. Hewitt

    Science is the body of knowledge about nature that represents the collective efforts, insights, findings, and wisdom of the human race. Science is not something new but had its beginnings before recorded history when humans first discovered reoccurring relationships around them. Through careful observations of these relationships, they began to know nature and, because of nature's dependability, found they could make predictions to enable some control over their surroundings.
    Science made its greatest headway in the sixteenth century when people began asking answerable questions about nature -- when they began replacing superstition by a systematic search for order -- when experiment in addition to logic was used to test ideas. Where people once tried to influence natural events with magic and supernatural forces, they now had science to guide them. Advance was slow, however, because of the powerful opposition to scientific methods and ideas.
    In about 1510 Copernicus suggested that the sun was stationary and that the earth revolved about the sun. He refuted the idea that the earth was the center of the universe. After years of hesitation, he published his findings but died before his book was circulated. His book was considered heretical and dangerous and was banned by the Church for 200 years. A century after Copernicus, the mathematician Bruno was burned at the stake -- largely for supporting Copernicus, suggesting the sun to be a star, and suggesting that space was infinite. Galileo was imprisoned for popularizing the Copernican theory and for his other contributions to scientific thought. Yet a couple of centuries later, Copernican advocates seemed harmless.
    This happens age after age. In the early 1800s geologists met with violent condemnation because they differed with the Genesis account of creation. Later in the same century, geology was safe, but theories of evolution were condemned and the teaching of them forbidden. This most likely continues. "At every crossway on the road that leads to the future, each progressive spirit is opposed by a thousand men appointed to guard the past." Every age has one or more groups of intellectual rebels who are persecuted, condemned, or suppressed at the time; but to a later age, they seem harmless and often essential to the elevation of human conditions.
    The enormous success of science has led to the general belief that scientists have developed and ate employing a "method" - a method that is extremely effective in gaining, organizing, and applying new knowledge. Galileo, famous scientist of the 1600s, is usually credited with being the "Father of the Scientific Method." His method is essentially as follows:
    1.  Recognize a problem.
    2.  Guess an answer.
    3.  Predict the consequences of the guess.
    4.  Perform experiments to test predictions.
    5.  Formulate the simplest theory organizes the three main ingredients: guess, prediction, experimental outcome.
    Although this cookbook method has a certain appeal, to has not been the key to most of the breakthroughs and discoveries in science. Trial and error, experimentation without guessing, accidental discovery, and other methods account for much of the progress in science. Rather than a particular method, the success of science has more to do with an attitude common to scientists. This attitude is essentially one of inquiry, experimentation, and humility before the facts. If a scientist holds an idea to be true and finds any counterevidence whatever, the idea is either modified or abandoned. In the scientific spirit, the idea must be modified or abandoned in spite of the reputation of the person advocating it. As an example, the greatly respected Greek philosopher Aristotle said that falling bodies fall at a speed proportional to their weight. This false idea was held to be true for more than 2,000 years because of Aristotle's immense authority. In the scientific spirit, however, a single verifiable experiment to the contrary outweighs any authority, regardless of reputation or the number of followers and advocates.
    Scientists must accept facts even when they would like them to be different. They must strive to distinguish between what they see and what they wish to see -- for humanity's capacity for self-deception is vast. People have traditionally tended to adopt general rules, beliefs, creeds, theories, and ideas without thoroughly questioning their validity and to retain them long after they have been shown to be meaningless, false, or at least questionable. The most widespread assumptions are the least questioned. Most often, when an idea is adopted, particular attention is given to cases that seem to support it, while cases that seem to refute it are distorted, belittled, or ignored. We feel deeply that it is a sign of weakness to "change out minds." Competent scientists, however, must be expert at changing their minds. This is because science seeks not to defend our beliefs but to improve them. Better theories are made by those who are not hung up on prevailing ones.
    Away from their profession, scientists are inherently no more honest or ethical than other people. But in their profession they work in an arena that puts a high premium on honesty. The cardinal rule in science is that all claims must be testable -- they must be capable, at least in principle, of being proved wrong. For example, if someone claims that a certain procedure has a certain result, it must in principle be possible to perform a procedure that will either confirm or contradict the claim. If confirmed, then the claim is regarded as useful and a stepping-stone to further knowledge. None of us has the time or energy or resources to test every claim, so most of the time we must take somebody's word. However, we must have some criterion for deciding whether one person's word is as good as another's and whether one claim is as good as another. The criterion, again, is that the claim must be testable. To reduce the likelihood of error, scientists accept the word only of those whose ideas, theories, and findings are testable -- if not in practice then at least in principle. Speculations that cannot be tested are regarded as "unscientific." This has the long-run effect of compelling honesty - findings widely publicized among fellow scientists are generally subjected to further testing. Sooner or later, mistake (and lies) are bound to be found out; wishful thinking is bound to be exposed. The honesty so important to the progress of science thus becomes a matter of self-interest to scientists.


NEW WORDS
 
    represent
vt. be a sign or symbol of; act for 代表
    collective
a.  of or shared by a group of people 集體的
    insight
n.  the power of using one's mind to see or understand the true nature of a situation 洞察力
    wisdom
n.  intelligence and good judgment 智慧
    reoccur
vi. occur again
    dependability
n.  reliability, trustworthiness
    prediction
n.  the act of predicting or sth. predicted 預(yù)測
    headway
n.  motion forward; progress
    answerable
n.  able to be answered
    replace
vt. take or fill the place of
    superstition
n.  a belief or practice based on ignorance, faith in magic or chance
    systematic
a.  of, having or using a system; carried out according to a system
    supernatural
n.  outside of or beyond the natural world 超自然的
    opposition
n.  the act or condition of opposing; resistance
    stationary
a.  not moving or changing; not capable of being moved
    hesitation
n.  the act of hesitating
    publish
vt. print and offer for sale
    circulate
v.  (cause to) spread widely; move or send around  傳播，（使）流傳，（使）循環(huán)
    heretical
a.  (of opinion) opposed to established beliefs or standards 異端的
    ban
vt. forbid by law or decree
    largely
ad. for the most part; mainly
    infinite
a.  having or seeming to have no limits; endless; very large
    imprison
vt. put in prison
    popularize
v.  cause to be well know and generally liked or used; make (a difficult subject) easily understandable to ordinary people 使普及；推廣
    geologist
n.  a person who knows much about geology 地質(zhì)學(xué)家
    violent
a.  having, showing, or resulting from great physical force; showing or having strong feelings 強(qiáng)暴的；猛烈的
    condemnation
n.  express strong disapproval of, pronounce guilty of crime or wrong 譴責(zé)；宣告...有罪
    condemnation
n. 
    genesis
n.  the beginning or origin: (G-) the first book of the Old Testament 起源;(《舊約全書》第一卷)《創(chuàng)世紀(jì)》
    geology
n.  the study of origin, structure, and history of the earth 地質(zhì)學(xué)
    evolution
n.  slow, gradual development; the scientific theory that all living things developed very slowly over millions of years from simpler forms of life 進(jìn)化（論）
    crossway
n.  crossroad; a road that crosses another
    progressive
a.  moving forward step by step; favoring or promoting improvement or reform
    appoint
vt. name for an office, duty or position 指定，任命
    rebel
n.  a person who resists or opposes authority 反叛者
    persecute
vt. treat continually in a cruel way, esp. because of political or religious beliefs 迫害
    suppress
vt. stop or put down by force; keep in, hold back 鎮(zhèn)壓；抑制
    essential
a.  very important; vital
    elevation
n.  the act of raising to a higher place or position
    elevate
vt.
    effective
a.  able to bring about a desired result; being in force or operation
    credit
vt. (with) believe that (sb.) has (a quality, or has done sth. good) 認(rèn)為（某人）有（某種優(yōu)點(diǎn)或成就等）
    formulate
vt. express in an exact way 精確地闡述
    ingredient
n.  a substance that is part of a mixture or compound 成分
    experimental
a.  used for or connected with experiments
    outcome
n.  a final result
    cookbook
n.  a book of directions and recipes for cooking
    breakthrough
n.  an important advance or discovery, often after earlier failures
    trial and error
    process of solving a problem by trying various solutions and learning from one's failures  反復(fù)試驗(yàn)
    experimentation
n.  the making of experiments
    accidental
a.  happening by chance, not by plan or intention
    counterevidence
n.  opposing evidence
    modify
vt. change, esp. slightly
    abandon
vt. give up completely; leave for good, desert
    reputation
n.  the general worth or quality of sb. or sth. as judged by others
    Greek
n.  sb. who was born in or is a citizen of Greece; the language of the Greeks 希臘人（語）
a.  of Greece, its people, or their language
    proportional
a.  in proportion 成比例的
    immense
a.  of great size, extent or degree
    verifiable
a.  that can be checked or tested and proved to be true
    outweigh
vt. weigh more than; exceed in value, importance or influence
    follower
n.  a person who follows or supports a particular person, belief, or cause, etc.
    strive
vt. try hard
    distinguish
v.  know or see clearly the difference between two things; to hear or see clearly 區(qū)分，辨別
    humanity
n.  human beings as a group; people
    adopt
vt. take and use as one's own
    creed
n.  a statement of the beliefs of principles held by a person or group 信條
    retain
vt. continue to have; keep; hold in the mind or memory
    questionable
a.  perhaps not true, right or honest; not certain
    assumption
n.  sth. that is taken as a fact or believed to be true without proof
    belittle
vt. cause to seem small or unimportant
    weakness
n.  the condition or quality of being weak; a weak point; fault
    inherent
a.  of or being a basic quality or characteristic of a person or thing 內(nèi)在的，固有的
    inherently
ad.
    ethical
a.  agreeing with the rules or standards of right behavior
    ethics
n.  moral rules or principles of behavior governing a person or group 倫理，道德
    arena
n.  an enclosed area used for sports events and entertainments; any place of activity 競技場；活動(dòng)場所
    premium
n.  an unusual or high value
    cardinal
a.  chief, main, most important
    testable
a.  capable of being tested
    procedure
n.  a set of actions necessary for doing sth.; the method and order of directing business in an official meeting, law case, etc. 程序
    contradict
vt. say the opposite of; disagree with 反駁；同...矛盾
    stepping-stone
n.  a means of advancing or rising; a way of improvement or gaining success 進(jìn)身之階;墊腳石
    criterion
n.  an established standard or principle on which a judgment or decision is based 標(biāo)準(zhǔn)
    likelihood
n.  the fact or degree of being likely; probability
    speculation
n.  careful thought, reflection; the act or process of guessing 沉思;推測
    speculate
v.  reflect; guess
unscientific
a.  not scientific
    long-run
a.  happening or continuing over a long period of time
    publicize
vt. bring to public notice 宣傳,公布
    publicity
n.  (the business of bringing sb. or sth. to) public notice or attention
    wishful
a.  having or expressing a wish
    wishful thinking
    the false belier that sth. is true of will happen simply because one wishes it 如意算盤


PHRASRS & EXPRESSIONS
 
meet with
    experience or suffer
credit sb. with sth.
    believe sb. has sth. or is responsible for sth.
account for
    be responsible for, explain
have (...) to do with
    have a (...)connection with
to the contrary
    to the opposite effect, in disagreement
distinguish between
    tell the difference between, separate (one) from (the other)
be hung up on / about
    (infml.) be infatuated with or enthusiastic about 迷戀；熱衷于
put a (high) premium on
    regard as (very) important
in principle
    as regards the general truth or rule, as fat as the overall idea is concerned
take sb.'s word (for it)
    believe sb.; accept what sb. says as correct
in practice
    in the actual doing of sth.
subject to
    cause to experience or undergo


PROPER NAMES

    Paul G. Hewitt
    保羅.G.休伊特
    Copernicus
    哥白尼
    Bruno
    布魯諾
    Galileo
    伽利略